Chapter 2 – The Nationalist Movement in Indo-China CLASS 10

Chapter 2 – The Nationalist Movement in Indo-China

Fill in the blanks:

1] Vietnam gained formal independence in 1945.
2] Indo-China comprises the modern countries of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia.
3] The colonization of Vietnam by the French brought the people of the country into conflict with the colonizers.
4] French troops landed in Vietnam in 1858.
5] In 1887 French Indo-China was formed.
6] The French began by building canals and draining lands in the Mekong delta to increase cultivation.
7] Vietnam exported two-thirds of its rice production and by 1931 had become the third largest exporter of rice in the world.
8] The elites in Vietnam were powerfully influenced by Chinese culture.
9] The Tonkin Free School was started in 1907 to provide a Western style education.
10] In 1802 Nguyen Anh became emperor symbolizing the unification of the country under the Nguyen dynasty.
11] Cochinchina became a French colony in 1867.
12] Ho Chi Minh formed the Vietnamese Communist Party in 1930.
13] Ho Chi Minh declared independence in Hanoi in 1945.
14] The French army was defeated at Dien Bien Phu in 1954.
15] The Paris Peace Treaty was signed in 1974.
16] The Socialist Republic of Vietnam was proclaimed in 1976.
17] Students formed various political parties, such as the Party of Young Annan, and published nationalist journals such as the Annanese Student.
18] In 1903 the modern part of Hanoi was struck by bubonic plague.
19] A rat hunt was started in 1902.
20] Vietnam’s religious beliefs were a mixture of Buddhism, Confucianism and local practices.
21] An early movement against French control and the spread of Christianity was the Scholars Revolt in 1868.
22] The religious beliefs among the peasantry were shaped by a variety of syncretic traditions that combined Buddhism and local beliefs.
23] The Hoa Hao movement began in 1939 and gained great popularity in the fertile Mekong delta area.
24] The founder of Hoa Hao was a man called Huynh Phu So.
25] Phan Boi Chau became a major figure in the anti-colonial resistance from the time he formed the Revolutionary Society in 1903
26] Phan Boi Chau met the Chinese reformer Liang Qichao in Yokohama in 1905.
27] Phan’s most influential book, The History of the Loss of Vietnam was written under the strong influence and advice of Qichao.
28] A form of government based on popular consent and popular representation is called Republic.
29] In 1911, the long established monarchy in China was overthrown by a popular movement under Sun Yat-sen, and a Republic was set up.
30] In February 1930, Ho Chi Minh brought together competing nationalist groups to establish the Vietnamese Communist Party
31] The League for the Independence of Vietnam, which came to be known as the Vietminh, fought the Japanese occupation and recaptured Hanoi in September 1945.
32] After eight years of fighting, the French were defeated in 1954 at Dien Bien Phu.
33] The Bao Dai regime was soon overthrown by a coup led by Ngo Dinh Diem.
34] Ordinance 10 was a French law that permitted Christianity but outlawed Buddhism.
35] Francis Ford Coppola’s Apocalypse Now reflected the moral confusion that the Vietnamese war had caused in the US.
36] Napalm was an organic compound used to thicken gasoline for firebombs.
37] The NLF occupied the presidential palace in Saigon on 30 April 1975 and unified Vietnam.

Questions & Answers:

Q.1. In which year Vietnam gained independence?
Ans:
Vietnam gained formal independence in 1945, before India, but it took another three decades of fighting before the Republic of Vietnam was formed.

Q.2. How did nationalism in Indo-China develop?
Ans:
Nationalism in Indo-China developed in a colonial context. The knitting together of a modern Vietnamese nation that brought the different communities together was in part the result of colonization but, as importantly, it was shaped by the struggle against colonial domination.

Q.3. the countries in Indo-China were influenced by Chinese culture. Explain.
Ans:
Indo-China comprises the modern countries of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. Its early history shows many different groups of people living in this area under the shadow of the powerful empire of China. Even when an independent country was established in what is now northern and central Vietnam, its rulers continued to maintain the Chinese system of government as well as Chinese culture.

Q.4. Give reasons for emergence of nationalism in Vietnam.
Ans:

• The colonization of Vietnam by the French brought the people of the country into conflict with the colonizers in all areas of life.
• The most visible form of French control was military and economic domination but the French also built a system that tried to reshape the culture of the Vietnamese.
•  Nationalism in Vietnam emerged through the efforts of different sections of society to fight against the French and all they represented.

Q.5. Who was Francis Garnier?
Ans:
Francis Garnier, a French officer who led an attack against the ruling Nguyen dynasty, Garnier was part of the French team that explored the Mekong river. In 1873 he was commissioned by the French to try and establish a French colony in Tonkin in the north. Garnier carried out an attack on Hanoi, the capital of Tonkin, but was killed in the fight.

Q.6. When did French troop land in Vietnam?
Ans:
French troops landed in Vietnam in 1858 and by the mid-1880s they had established a firm grip over the northern region.

Q.7. In which year French Indo-China was formed?
Ans:
After the Franco-Chinese war the French assumed control of Tonkin and Anaam and, in 1887, French Indo-China was formed.

Q.8. the French thought that the colonies were necessary. Explain.
Ans:
Colonies were considered essential to supply natural resources and other essential goods. Like other Western nations, France also thought it was the mission of the ‘advanced’ European countries to bring the benefits of civilization to backward peoples. The French began by building canals and draining lands in the Mekong delta to increase cultivation. The vast system of irrigation works canals and earthworks built mainly with forced labour, increased rice production and allowed the export of rice to the international markets.

Q.9. What did Paul Bernard, an influential writer believed about colonies?
Ans:
Paul Bernard, an influential writer and policy-maker, strongly believed that the economy of the colonies needed to be developed. He argued that the purpose of acquiring colonies was to make profits. If the economy was developed and the standard of living of the people improved, they would buy more goods. The market would consequently expand, leading to better profits for French business.

Q.10. According to Bernard what were barriers to economic growth in Vietnam?
Ans:
According to Bernard there were several barriers to economic growth in Vietnam like high population levels, low agricultural productivity and extensive indebtedness amongst the peasants.

Q.11. What is meant by Indentured labour?
Ans:
It is a form of labour widely used in the plantations from the mid-nineteenth century. Labourers worked on the basis of contracts that did not specify any rights of labourers but gave immense power to employers. Employers could bring criminal charges against labourers and punish and jail them for non-fulfillment of contracts.

Q.12. What was the French idea of a ‘civilising mission’?
Ans:

• French colonisation was not based only on economic exploitation. It was also driven by the idea of a ‘civilising mission’.
• Like the British in India, the French claimed that they were bringing modern civilization to the Vietnamese.
• They took for granted that Europe had developed the most advanced civilisation.
• So it became the duty of the Europeans to introduce these modern ideas to the colony even if this meant destroying local cultures, religions and traditions, because these were seen as outdated and prevented modern development.

Q.13. Describe the French dilemma regarding education in Vietnam.
Ans:
The French needed an educated local labour force but they feared that education might create problems. Once educated, the Vietnamese may begin to question colonial domination. Moreover, French citizens living in Vietnam (called colons) began fearing that they might lose their jobs as teachers, shopkeepers, policemen – to the educated Vietnamese. So they opposed policies that would give the Vietnamese full access to French education.

Q.14. What steps were taken by French to introduce its beliefs in education?
Ans:

• The French were faced with yet another problem in the sphere of education: the elites in Vietnam were powerfully influenced by Chinese culture.
• To consolidate their power, the French had to counter this Chinese influence.
• So they systematically dismantled the traditional educational system and established French schools for the Vietnamese.
• Some policymakers emphasized the need to use the French language as the medium of instruction.
• By learning the language, they felt, the Vietnamese would be introduced to the culture and civilisation of France.
• This would help create an ‘Asiatic France solidly tied to European France’.
• The educated people in Vietnam would respect French sentiments and ideals, see the superiority of French culture, and work for the French.
• Others were opposed to French being the only medium of instruction. They suggested that Vietnamese be taught in lower classes and French in the higher classes.
• The few who learnt French and acquired French culture were to be rewarded with French citizenship.

Q.15. How did French try to influence its values through schools?
Ans:

• School textbooks glorified the French and justified colonial rule.
• The Vietnamese were represented as primitive and backward, capable of manual labour but not of intellectual reflection
• They could work in the fields but not rule themselves; they were ‘skilled copyists’ but not creative.
• School children were told that only French rule could ensure peace in Vietnam

Q.16. Discuss the efforts made by French schools to introduce modernity?
Ans:

• The Tonkin Free School was started in 1907 to provide a Western style education.
• This education included classes in SCIENCE hygiene and French.
• The school’s approach to what it means to be ‘modern’ is a good example of the thinking prevalent at that time.
• It was not enough to learn science and Western ideas: to be modern the Vietnamese had to also look modern.
• The school encouraged the adoption of Western styles such as having a short haircut.
• For the Vietnamese this meant a major break with their own identity since they traditionally kept long hair.

Q.17. In which year Nguyen Anh became emperor?
Ans:
Nguyen Anh became emperor in 1802 symbolizing the unification of the country under the Nguyen dynasty.

Q.18. In which year Cochinchina became the French colony?
Ans:
Cochinchina (the South) became a French colony in 1867

Q.18. In which year the Indo-China union was created?
Ans:
The ndo-china Union was created in 1887 including Cochinchina, Annam, Tonkin, Cambodia and later, Laos.

Q.19. when was communist party founded by Ho Chi Minh?
Ans:
Ho Chi Minh formed the Vietnamese Communist Party in 1930

Q.20. when was independence declared in Hanoi?
Ans:
Vietminh started a general popular insurrection leading to abdication of Bao Dai. Ho Chi Minh declared independence in Hanoi on September 23 in 1945

Q.21. In which year the Paris peace treaty was signed?
Ans:
The Paris peace treaty was signed in 1974.

Q.22. In which year The Socialist Republic of Vietnam was proclaimed?
Ans:
The Socialist Republic of Vietnam was proclaimed in 1976.

Q.23. Discuss the protest of Saigon Native Girls School
Ans:
In 1926 a major protest erupted in the Saigon Native Girls School. A Vietnamese girl sitting in one of the front seats was asked to move to the back of the class and allow a local French student to occupy the front bench. She refused. The principal, being French expelled her. When angry students protested, they too were expelled, leading to a further spread of open protests. Seeing the situation getting out of control, the government forced the school to take the students back.

Q.24. Name the political parties formed by students.
Ans:
By the 1920s, students were forming various political parties, such as the Party of Young Annan, and publishing nationalist journals such as the Annanese Student.

Q.25. Schools thus became an important place for political and cultural battles. Explain.
Ans:

• Schools became an important place for political and cultural battles.
• The French sought to strengthen their rule in Vietnam through the control of education.
• They tried to change the values, norms and perceptions of the people, to make them believe in the superiority of French civilization and the inferiority of the Vietnamese.
• Vietnamese intellectuals, on the other hand, feared that Vietnam was losing not just control over its territory but its very identity: its own culture and customs were being devalued and the people were developing a master-slave mentality.
• The battle against French colonial education became part of the larger battle against colonialism and for independence.

Q.26. Examine the reasons for eruption of plague in Hanoi.
Ans:

• When the French set about creating a modern Vietnam, they decided to rebuild Hanoi.
• The latest ideas about architecture and modern engineering skills were employed to build a new and ‘modern’ city.
• In 1903, the modern part of Hanoi was struck by bubonic plague.
• The French part of Hanoi was built as a beautiful and clean city with wide avenues and a well-laid-out sewer system, while the ‘native quarter’ was not provided with any modern facilities.
• The refuse from the old city drained straight out into the river or, during heavy rains or floods, overflowed into the streets.
• Thus what was installed to create a hygienic environment in the French city became the cause of the plague.
• The large sewers in the modern part of the city, a symbol of modernity, were an ideal and protected breeding ground for rats.
• The sewers also served as a great transport system, allowing the rats to move around the city without any problem.
• The rats began to enter the well-cared-for homes of the French through the sewage pipes.
• This led to the outbreak of plague in Hanoi.

Q.27. write a note on rat hunt.
Ans:

• A rat hunt was started in 1902.
• The French hired Vietnamese workers and paid them for each rat they caught.
• Rats began to be caught in thousands: on 30 May, for instance, 20,000 were caught but still there seemed to be no end.
• For the Vietnamese the rat hunt seemed to provide an early lesson in the success of collective bargaining.
• Those who did the dirty work of entering sewers found that if they came together they could negotiate a higher bounty.
• They also discovered innovative ways to profit from this situation.
• The bounty was paid when a tail was given as proof that a rat had been killed.
• So the rat-catchers took to just clipping the tails and releasing the rats, so that the process could be repeated, over and over again.
• Some people, in fact, began raising rats to earn a bounty.
• Finally the program was scrapped.

Q.28. what were religious beliefs of people of Vietnam?
Ans:
Vietnam’s religious beliefs were a mixture of Buddhism, Confucianism and local practices. Christianity, introduced by French missionaries, was intolerant of this easygoing attitude and viewed the Vietnamese tendency to revere the supernatural as something to be corrected.

Q.29. write a short note on scholar’s revolt.
Ans:

• An early movement against French control and the spread of Christianity was the Scholars Revolt in 1868.
• This revolt was led by officials at the imperial court angered by the spread of Catholicism and French power.
• They led a general uprising in Ngu An and Ha Tien provinces where over a thousand Catholics were killed.
• Catholic missionaries had been active in winning converts since the early seventeenth century, and by the middle of the eighteenth century had converted some 300,000.
• The French crushed the movement but this uprising served to inspire other patriots to rise up against them.

Q.30. How was religious beliefs spread among the peasants?
Ans:

• The elites in Vietnam were educated in Chinese and Confucianism.
• But religious beliefs among the peasantry were shaped by a variety of syncretic traditions that combined Buddhism and local beliefs.
• There were many popular religions in Vietnam that were spread by people who claimed to have seen a vision of God.

Q.31. write a note on Hao Hao movement. How did the French tried to suppress the movement?
Ans:

• Hoa Hao movement began in 1939 and gained great popularity in the fertile Mekong delta area.
• The founder of Hoa Hao was a man called Huynh Phu So.
• He performed miracles and helped the poor. His criticism against useless expenditure had a wide appeal.
• He also opposed the sale of child brides, gambling and the use of alcohol and opium.
• The French tried to suppress the movement inspired by Huynh Phu So.
• They declared him mad, called him the Mad Bonze, and put him in a mental asylum.
• Interestingly, the doctor who had to prove him insane became his follower, and finally in 1941, even the French doctors declared that he was sane.
• The French authorities exiled him to Laos and sent many of his followers to concentration camps.

Q.32. who was Phan Boi Chau?
Ans:
Phan Boi Chau became a major figure in the anti-colonial resistance from the time he formed the Revolutionary Society (Duy Tan Hoi) in 1903, with Prince Cuong De as the head.

Q.33. Discuss the contribution of Phan Boi Chau.
Ans:

• Phan Boi Chau was a nationalist educated in the Confucian tradition.
• He met the Chinese reformer Liang Qichao in Yokohama in 1905.
• Phan’s most influential book, The History of the Loss of Vietnam was written under the strong influence and advice of Qichao.
• It became a widely read bestseller in Vietnam and China and was even made into a play.
• The book focuses on two connected themes: the loss of sovereignty and the severing of ties with China, ties that bound the elites of the two countries within a shared culture.

Q.34. who was Phan Boi Chau?
Ans:

• Phan Boi Chau was a nationalist who was intensely hostile to the monarchy and opposed to the idea of resisting the French with the help of the court.
• His desire was to establish a democratic republic. Profoundly influenced by the democratic ideals of the West
• He did not want a wholesale rejection of Western civilization.
• He accepted the French revolutionary ideal of liberty but charged the French for not abiding by the ideal.
• He demanded that the French set up legal and educational institutions, and develop AGRICULTURE and INDUSTRIES.1

Q.35. what is meant by republic?
Ans:
It is a form of government based on popular consent and popular representation. It is based on the power of the people as opposed to monarchy

Q.36. what was ‘go east movement’?
Ans:

• In the first decade of the twentieth century a ‘go east movement’ became popular.
• In 1907-08 some 300 Vietnamese students went to Japan to acquire modern education.
• For many of them the primary objective was to drive out the French from Vietnam, overthrow the puppet emperor and re-establish the Nguyen dynasty that had been deposed by the French.
• These nationalists looked for foreign arms and help.
• They appealed to the Japanese as fellow Asians Japan had modernized itself and had resisted colonization by the West.
• Besides, its victory over Russia in 1907 proved its military capabilities.
• Vietnamese students established a branch of the Restoration Society in Tokyo.

Q.37. How did developments in China inspire Vietnamese nationalists?
Ans:

• Developments in China also inspired Vietnamese nationalists.
• In 1911, the long established monarchy in China was overthrown by a popular movement under Sun Yat-sen, and a Republic was set up.
• Inspired by these developments, Vietnamese students organised the Association for the Restoration of Vietnam.
• The nature of the anti-French independence movement changed.
• The objective was no longer to set up a constitutional monarchy but a democratic republic.

Q.38. when was the Vietnamese Communist Party established?
Ans:
In February 1930, Ho Chi Minh brought together competing nationalist groups to establish the Vietnamese Communist (Vietnam Cong San Dang) Party, later renamed the Indo-Chinese Communist Party. He was inspired by the militant demonstrations of the European communist parties.

Q.39. Describe the formation of The Democratic Republic of Vietnam.
Ans:
In 1940 Japan occupied Vietnam, as part of its imperial drive to control Southeast Asia. So nationalists now had to fight against the Japanese as well as the French. The League for the Independence of Vietnam (Viet Nam Doc Lap Dong Minh), which came to be known as the Vietminh, fought the Japanese occupation and recaptured Hanoi in September 1945. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam was formed and Ho Chi Minh became Chairman.

Q.40. what was the immediate challenge faced by the new republic?
Ans:

• The new republic faced a number of challenges.
• The French tried to regain control by using the emperor, Bao Dai, as their puppet.
• Faced with the French offensive, the Vietminh were forced to retreat to the hills.
• After eight years of fighting, the French were defeated in 1954 at Dien Bien Phu.

Q.41. What was the impact of the division of Vietnam?
Ans:

• In the peace negotiations in Geneva that followed the French defeat, the Vietnamese were persuaded to accept the division of the country.
• North and south were split:
• Ho Chi Minh and the communists took power in the north while Bao Dai’s regime was put in power in the south.
• This division set in motion a series of events that turned Vietnam into a battlefield bringing death and destruction to its people as well as the environment.
• The Bao Dai regime was soon overthrown by a coup led by Ngo Dinh Diem.
• Diem built a repressive and authoritarian government.
• Anyone who opposed him was called a communist and was jailed and killed.
• Diem retained Ordinance 10, a French law that permitted Christianity but outlawed Buddhism.

Q.42. how did Dien Bien Phu became a very important symbol of struggle?
Ans:

• At Dien Bien Phu the French were outwitted by the Vietminh forces led by General Vo Nguyen Giap.
• The French Commander, Navarre, had not thought of all the problems he would face in the battle.
• The valley where French garrisons were located was flooded in the monsoon and the area was covered with bushes, making it difficult to move troops and tanks, or trace the Vietminh anti-aircraft guns hidden in the jungle.
• From their base in the hills, the Vietminh surrounded the French garrisons in the valley below, digging trenches and tunnels to move without being detected.
• Supplies and reinforcements could not reach the besieged French garrison, the wounded French soldiers could not be moved, and the French airstrip became unusable because of continuous artillery fire.
• Dien Bien Phu became a very important symbol of struggle.
• It strengthened Vietminh conviction in their capacity to fight powerful imperial forces through determination and proper strategy.
• Stories of the battle were retold in villages and cities to inspire people.

Q.43. how did the entry of U.S.A. affected Vietnam?
Ans:

• US entry into the war marked a new phase that proved costly to the Vietnamese as well as to the Americans.
• The phase of struggle with the US was brutal.
• Thousands of US troops arrived equipped with heavy weapons and tanks and backed by the most powerful bombers of the time – B52s.
• The wide spread attacks and use of chemical weapons – Napalm, Agent Orange, and phosphorous bombs – destroyed many villages and decimated jungles. Civilians died in large numbers.

Q.44. what was the effect of Vietnam War in the U.S.A.?
Ans:

• The effect of the war was felt within the US as well.
• Many were critical of the government for getting involved in a war that they saw as indefensible.
• When the youth were drafted for the war, the anger spread.
• Compulsory service in the armed forces, however, could be waived for university graduates.
• This meant that many of those sent to fight did not belong to the privileged elite but were minorities and children of working-class families.
• The US media and films played a major role in both supporting as well as criticizing the war. Hollywood made films in support of the war, such as John Wayne’s Green Berets

Q.45. what led to the entry of U.S.A. in Vietnam War? What was its effect?
Ans:

• The war grew out of a fear among US policy-planners that the victory of the Ho Chi Minh government would start a domino effect
• Communist governments would be established in other countries in the area.
• They underestimated the power of nationalism to move people to action, inspire them to sacrifice their home and family, live under horrific conditions, and fight for independence.
• They underestimated the power of a small country to fight the most technologically advanced country in the world.

Q.46. what was Napalm?
Ans:
Napalm was an organic compound used to thicken gasoline for firebombs. The mixture burns slowly and when it comes in contact with surfaces like the human body, it sticks and continues to burn. Developed in the US, it was used in the Second World War. Despite an international outcry, it was used in Vietnam.

Q.47. write a short note on Ho Chi Minh trail.
Ans:

• The story of the Ho Chi Minh trail is one way of understanding the nature of the war that the Vietnamese fought against the US.
• It symbolizes how the Vietnamese used their limited resources to great advantage.
• The trail, an immense network of footpaths and roads, was used to transport men and materials from the north to the south.
• The trail had support bases and hospitals along the way. In some parts supplies were transported in trucks, but mostly they were carried by porters, who were mainly women.
• These porters carried about 25 kilos on their backs, or about 70 kilos on their bicycles.
• Most of the trail was outside Vietnam in neighboring Laos and Cambodia with branch lines extending into South Vietnam.
• The US regularly bombed this trail trying to disrupt supplies, but efforts to destroy this important supply line by intensive bombing failed because they were rebuilt very quickly.

Q.48. Discuss the role of women in Vietnam.
Ans:

• Women in Vietnam traditionally enjoyed greater equality than in China, particularly among the lower classes, but they had only limited freedom to determine their future and played no role in public life.
• As the nationalist movement grew, the status of women came to be questioned and a new image of womanhood emerged.
• Writers and political thinkers began idealizing women who rebelled against social norms.
• In the 1930s, a famous novel by Nhat Linh caused a scandal because it showed a woman leaving a forced marriage and marrying someone of her choice, someone who was involved in nationalist politics.
• This rebellion against social conventions marked the arrival of the new woman in Vietnamese society.

Q.49. How was rebel women glorified in Vietnam?
Ans:

• Rebel women of the past were celebrated.
• In 1913, the nationalist Phan Boi Chau wrote a play based on the lives of the Trung sisters who had fought against Chinese domination in 39-43 CE.
• He depicted these sisters as patriots fighting to save the Vietnamese nation from the Chinese.
• After Phan’s play the Trung sisters came to be idealized and glorified.
• They were depicted in paintings, plays and novels as representing the indomitable will and the intense patriotism of the Vietnamese.
• Other women rebels of the past were part of the popular nationalist lore. One of the most venerated was Trieu Au who lived in the third century CE.
• Orphaned in childhood, she lived with her brother. On growing up she left home, went into the jungles, organized a large army and resisted Chinese rule.
• Finally, when her army was crushed, she drowned herself. She became a sacred figure, not just a martyr who fought for the honour of the country.
• Nationalists popularized her image to inspire people to action.

Q.50. How did women help in the Vietnam War?
Ans:

• Women were represented not only as warriors but also as workers:
• They were shown with a rifle in one hand and a hammer in the other.
• Whether young or old, women began to be depicted as selflessly working and fighting to save the country.
• As casualties in the war increased in the 1960s, women were urged to join the struggle in larger numbers.
• Many women responded and joined the resistance movement. They helped in nursing the wounded, constructing underground rooms and tunnels and fighting the enemy.
• Along the Ho Chi Minh trail young volunteers kept open 2,195 km of strategic roads and guarded 2,500 key points.
• They built six airstrips, neutralized tens of thousands of bombs, transported tens of thousands of kilograms of cargo, weapons and food and shot down fifteen planes.
• Between 1965 and 1975, of the 17,000 youth who worked on the trail, 70 to 80 per cent were women.
• One military historian argues that there were 1.5 million women in the regular army, the militia, the local forces and professional teams.

Q.51. when did the war between Vietnam and U.S. end?
Ans:
A peace settlement was signed in Paris in January 1974. This ended conflict with the US but fighting between the Saigon regime and the NLF continued. The NLF occupied the presidential palace in Saigon on 30 April 1975 and unified Vietnam.

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BY SUMIT BHADRA